Body ownership illusions in immersive virtual reality

Body ownership illusions (BOIs) refer to the phenomenon in which individuals experience artificial or virtual body parts as their own. These illusions arise from the brain’s integration of multisensory input and can be reliably induced using immersive virtual reality (VR) technologies. While BOIs have been extensively studied in neurological and psychological contexts, emerging research suggests their potential applicability in musculoskeletal rehabilitation; however, the evidence base remains relatively limited. This review synthesizes findings from experimental and clinical studies on BOIs, with a focus on their relevance to pain modulation, kinesiophobia, altered body image, and their application in patient education and exercise. Key domains for the application of BOIs in musculoskeletal rehabilitation are proposed. Evidence suggests that BOIs may offer promising opportunities to modulate central mechanisms that often limit rehabilitation outcomes. By potentially updating maladaptive top-down expectations, enabling controlled exposure to feared movements, and leveraging the Proteus effect, BOIs could influence pain perception, kinesiophobia, and behaviour in ways that support recovery. Embodiment in healthy or hyper-capable avatars may contribute to improvements in body image and movement confidence, while the integration of BOIs into VR-based educational interventions may enhance emotional engagement, facilitate belief change, and increase motivation. Collectively, these proposed mechanisms suggest that BOIs have the potential to address psychosocial barriers and support adherence to rehabilitation programmes, although further clinical research is needed to confirm these effects in patient populations. Insights from this review may inform future research and guide the design of innovative, patient-centred VR rehabilitation strategies.