FROM DESIGN TO CLINICAL TRANSLATION: PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES GOVERNING PHARMACEUTICAL NANOPARTICLES IN MODERN DRUG DELIVERY

Pharmaceutical sciences have undergone a revolution thanks to nanotechnology, which has solved issues with traditional drug delivery methods such poor solubility and targeting. The physicochemical characteristics that control nanoparticle biodistribution, cellular uptake, and efficacy—such as size, shape, surface chemistry, and charge—are examined in this review. Top-down and bottom-up preparation methods, characterisation methods (DLS, TEM, zeta potential), and applications in neurological illnesses, cancer, and vaccines are all covered. Precision medicine is promised by stimuli-responsive and AI- optimized nanocarriers, however scalability and safety issues still exist. Clinical translation potential is highlighted by recent developments, such as LNP-mRNA vaccines.