Ecological Significance of Insect–Animal Networks in Terrestrial and Aquatic Systems: A Review

Insect–animal networks are fundamental to ecological systems, supporting biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and the provision of key ecosystem services in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. These networks include a wide array of interactions trophic, mutualistic, and antagonistic that together shape population dynamics, energy transfer, and nutrient cycling. As the most diverse group of organisms, insects occupy central roles within these networks, functioning as pollinators, herbivores, predators, parasitoids, and decomposers. Their interactions with vertebrates and other invertebrates form complex, multi-level connections that strengthen ecosystem stability and resilience. Current understanding highlights the structure and ecological importance of these networks, focusing on their diversity, functional roles, and contributions to services such as pollination, biological pest control, and decomposition. Cross-ecosystem linkages are particularly significant, especially between aquatic and terrestrial systems, where insects act as key agents of energy and nutrient exchange. Concepts from network theory Such as connectance, nestedness, and modularity—help explain how patterns of interaction influence ecosystem robustness. These networks are increasingly threatened by human-driven pressures, including habitat loss, climate change, pollution, and invasive species. Such disturbances disrupt interactions, contribute to insect declines, and trigger cascading effects across ecosystems. Effective conservation and management strategies must therefore integrate species interactions, habitat restoration, and ecosystem-based approaches to preserve network integrity. Despite growing knowledge, important gaps remain, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary research, advanced analytical methods, and emerging technologies to better understand these complex systems. Safeguarding insect–animal networks is essential for maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem productivity, and resilience in a rapidly changing world.