‘ <i>Si no hay leal, no hay lopa</i> ’ [‘No money, no work’]: Chinese Migration, Exclusion and Transnational Resistance in Venezuela, 1870s–1940s

Abstract This paper traces the history of Chinese migration to Venezuela from 1875 onward, leading to the Chinese expulsion orders of 1938 and 1941. It highlights the shifting phases of acceptance and discrimination by Venezuela’s state and society, emphasising the agency of the Chinese community in resisting exclusion through transnational networks and diplomatic advocacy. Additionally, it examines the unique characteristics of this migrant group, the discrepancies between legal frameworks and their enforcement, and the influence of racial and ethnic ideologies in shaping immigration policy and public sentiment. Ultimately, this paper demonstrates how international dynamics shaped the well-being of Chinese Venezuelans and advocates for a more transnational approach to understanding migration to Latin America in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.