Land use/land cover change, land surface temperature and climatic variability using geospatial analysis in the Sikkim Himalaya, India

The Sikkim Himalaya, a fragile high-altitude ecosystem, is increasingly threatened by climatic variability and anthropogenic pressures, resulting in transformations in land use land cover (LULC) and water resources. Limited studies have examined the combined dynamics of LULC, land surface temperature (LST), climate variability and community perspective to capture human‒environment interactions in Sikkim. This study utilizes Landsat images (1988–2020), meteorological data (1985–2017), and community surveys (2017–2019). Results reveal about 12.6% decline in forest cover, rise in built-up area, and LST increase of 1 °C–1.9 °C, with erratic rainfall patterns. Community surveys corroborate these findings with local perceptions of rising temperature and declining water availability. These findings underscore the urgency of adopting ecosystem-based and community-driven adaptation strategies, contributing to SDG 13 and 15. Future research should focus on integrating high-resolution satellite data, advanced climate–land interaction models, and long-term field monitoring to enhance the predictive understanding of ecosystem responses in the region.