How can vegetation landscapes enhance the health benefits of visual exposure to urban forests? An analysis of ecological, colour and spatial factors

Introduction Rapid urbanisation exacerbates psychological stress and diseases, highlighting the critical role of urban forests in mitigating health challenges. Beyond aesthetic value, these landscapes function as vital ecological systems that support wellbeing. Yet, the mechanisms through which their ecological, colour, and spatial attributes determine restorative potential remain inadequately understood. Methods This study employed an integrated Structural Equation Model-Interpretative Structural Model-Decision-making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (SEM-ISM-DEMATEL) methodology to systematically analyse these influencing factors. Research conducted in Kunming, China, integrated quantitative Hue, Saturation, Value model (HSV) colour analysis of plant communities across seasons with human-factors experiments. The experimental design incorporated psychological scales, physiological monitoring, and eye-tracking to comprehensively evaluate restorative outcomes. Results Ecological features and Perceived Restorative Experience (PRE) were identified as primary direct drivers of health benefits. Green-dominated landscapes significantly mitigated visual fatigue and enhanced physiological relaxation, while warm colours provided complementary arousal effects. Spatial features influenced restoration only indirectly through PRE mediation. The ISM-DEMATEL analysis further categorised key elements: Plant Species Richness and Plant Health & Phenology as fundamental drivers; Vegetation Stratification Richness and Colour Diversity as high-centrality transmission hubs; Seasonal Colour Expression as a pivotal element; and Landscape Aesthetic and Canopy Skyline Rhythm as core outcome indicators. Discussion This study pioneers a sequential SEM-ISM-DEMATEL framework that shifts analytical focus from outcomes to underlying causal mechanisms, enabling identification of key drivers within complex landscape systems. The findings demonstrate that highly restorative landscapes require both robust ecological foundations and carefully designed perceptual experiences. Practically, this necessitates a management paradigm shift towards systemic synergy: prioritising high cause-degree ecological and colour elements, and employing strategic planting to maintain year-round benefits. The research provides actionable insights for optimising planting design to fully realise the health benefits of urban forests, thereby supporting their resilience and role in fostering sustainable, healthy cities.