Beyond the membrane: The emerging landscape of nuclear PD-L1

Programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) serves as a major immune checkpoint, and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 axis have significantly advanced the landscape of tumor immunotherapy. However, current therapies targeting membrane-bound PD-L1(mPD-L1) frequently yield suboptimal efficacy in a substantial cohort of patients exhibiting primary or acquired resistance, underscoring an urgent need to systematically explore the multifaceted biology of PD-L1, particularly its non-canonical functions. Recent evidence has revealed that PD-L1 can dynamically translocate into the nucleus. Rather than acting as a universally established oncogenic regulator, emerging data indicate that nuclear PD-L1 (nPD-L1) orchestrates various non-canonical biological processes in a highly context-dependent and model-specific manner. In this review, we systematically trace the research evolution and milestone discoveries of nPD-L1, and summarize its dynamic nuclear translocation mechanisms and subsequent intranuclear biological functions. Furthermore, we critically evaluate the potential of nPD-L1 as both an exploratory predictive biomarker and a theoretical vulnerability for targeted therapy. Finally, we address the prevailing challenges in current nPD-L1 research and delineate future trajectories, emphasizing how technological advancements in subcellular proteomics and spatial biology can inform future studies of nPD-L1.