Testosterone, cortisol, and bullying perpetration in adolescents: The moderating role of peer victimization

= 0.70; 47.1% female) reported bullying perpetration and victimization and provided saliva samples for the analysis of hormones. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models revealed a three-way interaction (testosterone × cortisol × victimization). Increases in testosterone predicted changes in bullying perpetration when cortisol decreased. These effects were moderated by victimization. When victimization was below average, testosterone increases predicted more bullying perpetration; when it was above average, testosterone increases predicted less perpetration. These findings highlight that peer victimization shapes how testosterone-cortisol interactions influence adolescent aggression, underscoring the interplay of biological and contextual factors in adolescent adaptation.