Redox Regulation and Oxidative Stress in Health and Disease: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targeting

ABSTRACT Oxidative stress and redox signaling represent fundamental biological processes as they affect cellular homeostasis. In addition to their recognized cytotoxic effects, reactive oxygen species (ROS) were recognized to serve crucial roles in signaling transduction pathways, which in turn are tightly regulated in vivo in both physiological as well as disease states, with reactive nitrogen species (RNS) playing complementary roles. At physiological levels, ROS are integral to redox signaling, while persistent or uncontrolled redox, predominantly driven by excessive ROS, promotes disease pathology. Despite extensive research, a major knowledge gap remains in clearly distinguishing beneficial redox signaling and maladaptive oxidative distress. Additionally, there is a need to elucidate how these processes diverge across different pathological conditions and disease stages. In this review, the dysregulation of these highly regulated processes and their implications for a range of disease processes are examined with a focus on context‐dependent and stage‐specific effects. In addition, current and emerging diagnostic biomarkers of oxidative stress, along with redox‐targeted therapeutic strategies, are discussed, highlighting potential benefits and limitations. Finally, this review clarifies current conceptual challenges in redox biology and identifies opportunities for more precise therapeutic targeting of oxidative stress‐related diseases.