Evaluation of low carbon energy-carrier options for future non-road mobile machinery: A multisector case study

• Decarbonization methods of the non-road mobile machines are use-case dependent. • No single energy carrier option may be able to substitute fossil fuels alone. • Progression of CO 2 legislation has a decisive role for the future energy carriers. • Low-carbon alternatives will introduce trade-offs between costs and practicality. • Developed analytical methods assist selecting the appropriate low-carbon technology. No single solution can meet the diverse decarbonization needs of the NRMM (non-road mobile machinery) sector. Instead, the focus should be on identifying the most viable decarbonization methods for specific use cases, given the wide range of operational requirements, working cycles, and environments within NRMM. Existing studies often lack detailed, up-to-date comparisons of energy carrier options for specific NRMM segments, with most addressing the issue at a general level or focusing on individual technologies. This study aims to fill that gap by examining the key factors influencing decarbonization solutions for four common NRMM use cases: agricultural tractors, forestry equipment, port applications, and construction machinery. It limits its scope to electricity-based energy carriers (e-fuels, battery electric, and hybrid solutions) due to the exclusion of biogenic alternatives by the European Commission. The primary objective is to assess mechanisms affecting CO 2 emissions, excluding other pollutants, and to provide more detailed insights compared to prior studies, which often lack precision in reflecting real-world boundaries and use cases. The study highlights several viable energy carrier alternatives to fossil diesel for decarbonizing NRMM, emphasizing that their feasibility is heavily influenced by their use case, policy and future regulations.