Measuring the effects of language contact using word order entropy: the case of Nheengatu

Abstract This study examines the potential influence of Portuguese on the development of Nheengatu, comparing it with Tupinambá, the language from which Nheengatu originated. By applying word order entropy measures across 24 syntactic features, we analyze word order flexibility and identify cases suggesting direct Portuguese influence. The results show that Nheengatu aligns more closely with Portuguese in several word order features, including the positioning of subjects, objects, and the root. Additionally, Nheengatu is more aligned with Portuguese word order in the placement of adjectival modifiers relative to nouns and adverbs modifying adjectives. The influence of Portuguese is also evident in the positioning of auxiliary verbs, copulas, and markers (i.e., words marking clause subordination). Regarding clause positions, Nheengatu aligns with Portuguese, particularly in the placement of clauses that serve as the subject or object of the verb. This research suggests that entropy measures, supported by examples from corpora, can be useful for exploring potential language contact influences. However, limitations such as data size, annotation inconsistencies, and the non-native authorship of Tupinambá texts introduce potential biases.