Effects of Osmanthus fragrans and Sophora japonica flower powders addition on hazardous compound formation, quality characteristics, and starch digestion in baked biscuits

flower powders deepened biscuits color, reduced hardness, crispness, and chewiness, increased moisture content and water-holding capacity, and introduced a more porous microstructure. All formulations were sensorily acceptable. Digestibility tests showed that these two flower powders induced a shift from rapidly digestible to slowly digestible starch, accompanied by significant inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities. This study provides theoretical and technical support for using edible flowers to enhance the safety, quality, and health-related properties of biscuits.