The complex web of littering behaviour in natural open spaces: A multivariate exploration

Littering in natural open spaces presents persistent environmental, social and economic challenges, despite the implementation of various policies. Littering behaviour emerges from the interaction of multiple determinants and is strongly shaped by environmental, situational and personal conditions. To examine the influence of multiple determinants, the present study was designed as a quantitative multi-method field design. Structured behavioural field observations of 2262 visitors yielded 411 documented behavioural events, classified as intentional littering, unintentional littering and anti-littering behaviour. These were analysed alongside 624 linked post-event questionnaires across 26 nature sites in Israel. Forty-two environmental, situational and personal determinants were examined using multinomial logistic regression. Situational determinants, particularly litter type, emerged as the strongest predictor of observed littering behaviour, followed by environmental conditions such as maintenance levels and waste bin availability. In contrast, personal determinants, including attitudes and perceived responsibility, demonstrated limited predictive power when tested against directly observed behaviour. The results highlight the strong situational sensitivity of littering behaviour and reveal a gap between attitudes and observed behaviours in natural settings. The findings provide clear guidance for prioritizing waste management interventions in nature sites.