Integrated cellular and molecular evidence of Amitraz-induced oxidative stress in SH-SY5Y spheroids

induced a selective upregulation of antioxidant and cytoprotective genes, including HMOX1, NQO1, and GPX1. Overall, AMZ induces a spatially heterogeneous oxidative stress response in SH-SY5Y spheroids, characterized by intracellular redox imbalance, without mitochondrial involvement. The findings of this study underscore the significance of employing three-dimensional models to achieve a more profound comprehension of the deleterious effects that pesticides exert on complex organisms, such as spheroids, in contrast to the two-dimensional model that is presently utilized for this purpose.