Effects of EEG neurofeedback and training interventions on golf putting performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Electroencephalography neurofeedback (EEG-NFT) is used to modulate brain function to enhance golf putting performance. However, the effectiveness of EEG-NFT and its relationship with non-EEG training interventions in improving putting performance remain unclear. Methods: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) registration (CRD420251068586), this study systematically searched multiple databases up to 8 June 2025. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating EEG-NFT and other training interventions for golf putting were included. The meta-analyses employed random-effects models, with subgroup analyses conducted to examine moderators. Results: = -1.92) showed significant negative effects. Non-EEG training interventions also exhibited positive effects on putting performance, with skill practice-based interventions showing comparable efficacy to effective EEG-NFT protocols in novice golfers. Conclusion: EEG-NFT can enhance putting performance, but success requires precise protocol selection aligned with skill level and neural targets. Cz-SMR enhancement appears to be reliable, whereas non-specific suppression may be detrimental. Future research should establish standardized protocols and conduct larger RCTs to validate these findings. Systematic review registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=1068586, identifier (CRD420251068586).