Self-controlled and low-frequency KP feedback enhances gymnastics skill learning via motivation and metacognition

Background: Feedback plays a critical role in motor skill learning, yet the psychological and cognitive mechanisms through which feedback frequency and learner control influence long-term performance remain insufficiently understood. Theoretical models suggest that autonomy-supportive and spaced feedback may enhance motivation and metacognitive engagement, thereby promoting durable learning outcomes. This study investigated whether self-controlled and low-frequency knowledge of performance (KP) feedback enhances motor learning through a sequential motivational-cognitive pathway. Methods: A total of 232 novice university students practiced a goat stride vault (a multi-phase vaulting skill involving run-up, take-off, hand support, and controlled landing) under a 2 × 2 between-subjects design manipulating KP opportunity constraints (high availability vs. limited opportunities; two trials per 10-trial block) and feedback control (instructor-controlled vs. self-controlled). Autonomous motivation and metacognitive strategy use were assessed following acquisition. Performance during acquisition, retention, and transfer was evaluated. A mixed-design ANOVA tested performance changes across phases, and structural equation modeling examined a sequential motivational-cognitive mediation pathway. Results: Mixed ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of phase and significant phase × frequency, phase × control, and three-way interactions. SEM indicated significant indirect effects of feedback control and frequency on retention and transfer via autonomous motivation and metacognitive strategy use. Conclusion: Autonomy-supportive and spaced KP feedback enhances motor learning by strengthening autonomous motivation and metacognitive engagement. This motivational-cognitive mechanism provides evidence-based guidance for designing effective instructional feedback in complex motor-skill learning.