Pragmatic Language Use and Parent–Child Interaction Among Children at Risk for Developmental Language Disorder and Typically Developing Peers

BACKGROUND: Pragmatic language skills, which enable children to use language effectively for social communication, develop rapidly during early childhood and are closely intertwined with parent-child interaction patterns. Children at risk for developmental language disorder (rDLD) often exhibit early difficulties not only in structural language abilities but also in pragmatic language use and social interaction, which may adversely affect their social-emotional development. Although parent-child interaction is recognized as a critical environmental factor shaping early language and communication outcomes, studies simultaneously examining pragmatic language use and parent-child interaction in young children at risk for DLD, particularly within the Turkish context, remain limited. AIMS: The aim of this study was to compare pragmatic language use and parent-child interaction behaviours in Turkish children with rDLD and typically developing children, and to examine the relationships among these variables. METHODS: This cross-sectional comparative study included a total of 54 children aged 24-48 months (27 rDLD, 27 typically developing) and their parents. Pragmatic language use was assessed using the parent-report Language Use Inventory-Turkish (LUI-Turkish). Parent-child interaction behaviours were observed during structured free-play sessions using the Maternal Behaviour Rating Scale (MBRS) and the Child Behaviour Rating Scale (CBRS). Independent samples t-tests were used for between-group comparisons, and Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine associations among variables. RESULTS: The LUI-Turkish results indicated that the rDLD group demonstrated significantly lower performance than the typically developing group in early verbal communication and word use, long sentence production and complex pragmatic language use, as well as in the total score (p < 0.001). Parental responsiveness and emotional expressiveness were higher in the typically developing group (p < 0.01), whereas directive parental behaviours were significantly more frequent in the rDLD group (p = 0.011-0.033). Typically developing children showed higher performance on attention, initiation, and total scores on the CBRS (p < 0.001). Correlation analyses revealed significant positive associations among TEDIL verbal language, LUI-Turkish total, and CBRS total scores, and showed that parental responsiveness and emotional expressiveness were associated with these variables (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that pragmatic language difficulties in children at risk for DLD are closely associated with parental interaction styles and child interaction behaviours. Early assessment and intervention processes should address pragmatic language, parental behaviours, and child interaction skills within a holistic framework. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on this subject Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) or at risk for developmental language disorder (rDLD) frequently experience difficulties in pragmatic language use and social interaction from early childhood. Parent-child interaction, particularly parental responsiveness and directiveness, is known to influence early language development; however, pragmatic language and interactional behaviours have often been examined separately. Evidence integrating these domains in young children at risk for DLD, especially in the Turkish context, remains limited. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study demonstrates that Turkish children with rDLD show marked difficulties in pragmatic language use alongside distinct parent-child interaction patterns characterized by lower parental responsiveness and higher directiveness. It further reveals strong associations among pragmatic language abilities, child interaction behaviours, and parental interaction styles, highlighting their interrelated nature during the 24-48-month period. These findings support a multidimensional view of rDLD that extends beyond structural language impairment. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The findings underscore the importance of incorporating pragmatic language assessment and direct observation of parent-child interaction into early identification processes for rDLD. Early intervention programs may benefit from adopting family-centred, interaction-based approaches that target both children's pragmatic communication skills and parental interaction strategies.