Fully coupled, high-resolution atmosphere–ocean–wave simulations of the offshore wind energy environment during Hurricane Henri (2021)

Abstract. A new fully coupled modeling system, integrating atmosphere, ocean, and wave models, is presented to simulate intricate interactions during tropical cyclones and explore their potential implications for offshore infrastructure. The system is evaluated on Hurricane Henri (2021), chosen for its distinctive track along the US northeast coast, an area of densely populated regions and offshore wind energy zones. Three simulation setups are compared: atmosphere only, atmosphere–ocean, and a fully coupled atmosphere–ocean–wave model. Among them, the fully coupled model produces the most realistic results, improving not only the storm intensity near the surface but also the wind structure from the near surface to the upper atmosphere. Waves enhance ocean surface cooling with an additional 0.5 K reduction via wave-induced vertical mixing and modify wind interactions through wave-driven surface roughness. This more realistic representation of coupled heat and energy exchanges between the atmosphere and ocean yield improved wind field patterns, which are critical for comprehensive risk assessment pertaining to offshore energy infrastructures. Furthermore, the coupled system reasonably captures wind–wave misalignment during the storm, with the greatest misalignment in the left-front and rear-left quadrants, while alignment occurs on the right side of the storm due to storm motion enhancing wave growth. These spatial variations highlight the need to accurately model atmosphere–ocean–wave interactions for reliable wind load assessments.