Mosquito-borne disease among individuals experiencing homelessness in the USA: a literature review

Mosquito-borne diseases are a major public health issue. The USA has experienced mosquito-borne disease outbreaks, including West Nile virus, Zika, dengue, and malaria, highlighting widespread risk across the country. In the USA, exposure to mosquito vectors primarily occurs outdoors. Individuals experiencing unsheltered homelessness are particularly vulnerable to mosquito-borne diseases due to their increased exposure to mosquito vectors, limited access to healthcare, and high prevalence of underlying conditions. This review aims to examine the literature on mosquito-borne disease infections among individuals experiencing homelessness in the USA between 1999 and 2024. Our search strategy used Boolean methods on PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to select relevant publications. Two queries were used: the first query focused on individuals experiencing homelessness and mosquito-borne diseases, and the second one focused on epidemiological analyses of mosquito-borne disease outbreaks in the USA. Only studies reporting at least one infection among individuals experiencing homelessness were included. Our search resulted in the identification of 347 studies. After screening them, eight were ultimately included in this review. Half of the studies identified West Nile virus among individuals experiencing homelessness, and the other half reported cases of malaria. These studies show that individuals who spend more time outdoors, including individuals experiencing homelessness, may be at a greater risk of MBDs compared to the general population. However, the full extent of mosquito-borne disease exposure among individuals experiencing homelessness remains unclear. With climate change and globalization, there is a consensus in the literature showing an increasing risk of mosquito-borne disease transmission in the next decades, and we have already started to witness this increasing trend. Moreover, the USA is experiencing a steep increase in the overall nationwide homeless population. Therefore, we argue that developing policies aimed at providing homeless populations with housing during mosquito-borne disease outbreaks could be instrumental in protecting this segment of the population and promoting health equity. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10340-026-02042-0.