Spatiotemporal distribution, source apportionment, and ecological risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface water of the Southern Ocean

In Antarctica, low temperatures favor the trapping and deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), whereas the biogeochemical cycling of PAHs on the Southern Ocean adjacent to Antarctica is highly sensitive to climate change. However, very little environmental and ecological information is available on interannual PAHs variations in the surface of the Southern Ocean. From 2022 to 2024, we employed the 38 th , 39 th , and 40 th Chinese National Antarctic Research Expeditions (CHINARE) to collect surface water samples and conduct analyses of the spatio-temporal distribution patterns, source apportionment, and probabilistic ecological risk assessment of the 16 USEPA priority PAHs. We found that ∑PAH concentration in the study area ranged from 427 to 5782 pg/L, with median values of 1795, 1736, and 2559 pg/L for the 38 th , 39 th , and 40 th expeditions, respectively, showing a latitudinal gradient pattern of higher concentrations at lower latitudes and lower concentrations at higher latitudes. A significant concentration rebound was observed in the 40th expedition. Integrated analysis using molecular diagnostic ratios, PCA, and PMF revealed that this rebound was driven by a distinct “dual-pressure pattern”: intensified logistical traffic emissions (combustion sources) and the persistent release of fresh, unweathered PAHs. Source apportionment indicated an evolutionary trend from mixed petrogenic and ship-related liquid fuel combustion (38th) to episodic fresh local inputs (39th), culminating in the complex superposition of sources in the 40th survey. Probabilistic risk assessment using Monte Carlo simulations confirmed that acute risks to plankton remain low (the 95th percentile of ∑RQ MPC was 0.077); However, a structural shift towards hydrophobic high-molecular-weight PAHs (increasing to ~18% in 2024) signals a rising hidden potential for biomagnification in keystone species like Euphausia superba . These findings provide a critical scientific baseline for identifying pollution sources and supporting Antarctic ecosystem management under changing environmental conditions.