Digital divide and online voting in non-electoral processes in Spain

<ns3:p>This article explores the access to and use of online voting tools in non-electoral contexts in Spain, specifically in internal processes within political parties and local participatory initiatives. While Spain does not employ online voting in national elections, various political organizations and municipalities have adopted digital tools to facilitate citizen engagement and internal decision-making. Drawing on the 2024 Survey on Equipment and Use of ICT in Households conducted by the Spanish National Statistics Institute (INE), we analyze the sociodemographic, political, and digital determinants influencing participation through online voting. Ten explanatory variables are grouped into four dimensions: digital experience, interest in political issues, sociodemographic characteristics and available resources. Our findings show that participation through online voting reflects significant asymmetries. Individuals who are more digitally experienced, politically interested, and better connected to informational and educational resources are more likely to engage. These results raise critical concerns about the potential of digital tools to widen participatory gaps rather than close them.</ns3:p>