Humoral and cytokine responses to a heterologous goatpox vaccine in Mithun (Bos frontalis): a longitudinal field study

Introduction: ), a semi-domesticated bovine species of major socio-economic importance in Northeast India, remain poorly understood. Because sero-epidemiological findings have indicated LSDV exposure in Mithun, preventive interventions are needed. Methods: We conducted a 12-month longitudinal field study in Nagaland to assess the safety and vaccine-induced immune response of a heterologous goatpox vaccine in seronegative Mithun. Humoral responses were monitored by indirect ELISA and virus neutralization test (VNT), whereas selected systemic cytokine markers (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10) were evaluated using serum IFN-γ ELISA and PBMC mRNA transcriptional profiling. Results: Spatial mapping supported continued LSDV activity in Mithun populations. The vaccine was safe, with no adverse clinical reactions or detectable viral shedding in sequential nasal swabs. Seroconversion and cytokine upregulation were evident after vaccination, with antibody responses and cytokine expression peaking at 30 days post-vaccination. Discussions: These findings provide field-based evidence of vaccine-induced humoral and cytokine responses to the heterologous goatpox vaccine in Mithun and generate baseline information for future evaluation of LSD control strategies in this species. Antigen-specific cell-mediated immunity (CMI) was not assessed in this study, as stimulated PBMC recall assays were beyond the scope of the present field study, and should be evaluated in future investigations.