The Effects of Past COVID-19 and Vaccination on Antibody Levels, Cellular Immunity, and Cytokine Production by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells
SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination are associated with persistent humoral and cellular immune responses detectable several years after exposure. Individuals with hybrid immunity exhibit broader and functionally enhanced immune reactivity, indicating more robust long-term immune memory. Future studies should focus on the long-term consequences of hybrid immunity and optimize other vaccine strategies, including recombinant antigen vaccines.
Authors
- Andrey S. Trulioff (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7495-446X)
- Galina Leontieva (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9876-6594)
- Elena Bormotova
- B. P. Nikolaev (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7574-5996)
- Г. А. Матвеев (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2695-4924)
- T. V. Gupalova
- Yulia Desheva (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9794-3520)
- Polina Kudar (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3342-5828)
- Victoria Matyushenko (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4698-6085)
- Alexander N. Suvorov
- Danila Guzenkov (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-1680-399X)
- Daniil D. Sokolovskiy (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-8530-8059)
- Igor V. Kudryavtsev
Institutions
- ITMO University (RU)
- Institute of Cytology (RU)
- Institute of Experimental Medicine (RU)
Publication Details
- Journal
- Biomedicines
- Published
- 2026-04-17
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines14040923
- Primary Topic
- SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 0.00
Funders
- Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation