Comparing the predictive power of proactive to reactive metacognition on problem-solving self-efficacy and invention performance in invention tasks: a study based on ACT-R theory

Proactive and reactive metacognition are widely regarded as essential cognitive regulatory processes for successful engagement in STEM learning; however, limited empirical research has applied ACT-R theory to examine how these metacognitive modes operate within authentic invention contexts. Drawing upon ACT-R as a cognitive architecture framework, this study investigated the differential predictive effects of proactive and reactive metacognitive strategies on invention performance in a competitive design setting, with problem-solving self-efficacy conceptualized as a mediating mechanism. A purposive sample of 322 secondary students participating in the 2025 International Exhibition for Young Inventors: Taiwan Selection Competition completed a validated questionnaire. Structural equation modeling was employed to test the hypothesized relationships among constructs. The findings indicated that both proactive and reactive metacognitive strategies were positively associated with invention performance, and that problem-solving self-efficacy served as a significant mediator in these relationships. Notably, reactive metacognition demonstrated a stronger predictive effect on problem-solving self-efficacy than proactive metacognition. These results provide empirical support for the application of ACT-R in design-based STEM contexts and advance understanding of how distinct metacognitive processes contribute to performance through efficacy beliefs. The study highlights the importance of cultivating problem-solving self-efficacy within invention-oriented curricula to enhance students’ adaptive expertise and innovation capacity.