Optimisation and comparative extraction of safranal from <i>Crocus sativus</i> L. stigmas and commercial saffron products using response surface methodology (RSM) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)

= 99.38%). The adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) model further refined these predictions. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) quantified the yield of safranal (0.605%) under optimised conditions. The ANFIS model with 81 fuzzy rules successfully modelled non-linear interactions. The HPTLC method was validated with a Limit of Detection (LOD) of 120 µg/spot and a Limit of Quantitation (LOQ) of 360 µg/spot. The results demonstrate a rapid, eco-friendly, and energy-efficient extraction process, which is a sustainable approach for safranal production to support its growing pharmaceutical and fragrance applications.