Risk Assessment of Electromagnetic-Field Exposure in Heterogeneous Indoor Networks: Comparative Measurements and Modeling for Wi-Fi, 5G and Bluetooth

The widespread deployment of Wi-Fi, 5G, and Bluetooth has raised concerns regarding cumulative radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in everyday environments. This study assesses combined RF-EMF exposure from these technologies under indoor and outdoor conditions and evaluates compliance with international safety guidelines. Environmental exposure was quantified using field measurements of electric field strength and corresponding power density, while localized exposure from personal devices was assessed using specific absorption rate (SAR) data. Measured indoor power density values ranged from 0.02 to 0.06 W/m² for Wi-Fi and 0.03 to 0.15 W/m² for 5G, resulting in a maximum combined exposure of approximately 0.12 W/m², which is well below the ICNIRP public limit of 10 W/m². Localized SAR values were 0.8 W/kg for smartphones, 0.04 W/kg for Bluetooth earbuds, and 0.02 W/kg for smartwatches, all below the 2 W/kg ICNIRP limit. These results indicate that 5G dominates environmental exposure, while smartphones dominate localized exposure, and that cumulative RF-EMF exposure from Wi-Fi, 5G, and Bluetooth remains within international safety limits under normal operating conditions.