Understanding Online Hate Toward Sexual and Gender Minorities: A Systematic Review

Online hate speech (OHS) refers to discriminatory or offensive content shared via digital platforms that targets social groups. Synthesizing evidence on OHS directed at sexual and gender minorities (SGMs) is crucial, given the disproportionate online discrimination experienced by SGM people and its implications for well-being and social norms. This PRISMA-based systematic review synthesized quantitative studies in which the target of OHS content was SGM people, regardless of whether participants were SGM or non-SGM. We addressed four questions: (a) OHS definitions and operationalizations; (b) prevalence and risk factors of OHS; (c) psychological, behavioral, and social outcomes of exposure; and (d) behavioral responses to OHS exposure. Searches of 5 databases identified 13 studies. Definitions varied but generally captured identity-based targeting and hostile content in public or semi-public digital spaces. Prevalence varied by sampling frame: SGM-only studies reported high exposure (often > 85%), whereas general-population studies reported lower prevalence but higher exposure among SGM respondents. Risk factors were identity visibility/engagement, online behaviors, and lower digital media literacy; perpetration evidence was scarce. Exposure was associated with poorer SGM well-being (e.g., depression/anxiety, substance use, concealment, identity threat) and, experimentally, with lower perceived social cohesion and mixed effects on social attitudes. Witnesses generally condemned anti-SGM OHS; tolerance was higher among users with more negative pre-existing attitudes. Perceiving OHS as uncivil or harmful predicted stronger intervention intentions, while counter-speech effects were modest, reducing identity threat mainly under milder OHS. Findings highlight the need for harmonized measures, longitudinal/intersectional designs, and interventions pairing platform moderation with bystander-focused prevention efforts.