Distinct neurodynamics underlie empathy for infant pain: An EEG study of temporal and oscillatory mechanisms

condition elicited a larger P3 amplitude, suggesting enhanced cognitive empathy. In the oscillatory domain, infant pain (versus infant-neutral) induced enhanced alpha power and greater adaptive modulation of alpha and low beta (15-18 Hz) rhythms. Conversely, adult pain (versus adult-neutral) was associated with stronger suppression of low-alpha (8-10 Hz) activity and reduced adaptive modulation. Furthermore, empathy for infant pain engaged increased posterior-to-anterior information flow, suggesting heightened integration across affective and cognitive networks. These findings collectively suggest that the increased alpha power may reflect rapid threat detection and top-down modulation, while the enhanced adaptive changes signify efficient response optimization during infant pain empathy. Our results are consistent with the model of the parental brain as an evolutionary product that balances conserved subcortical responses with flexible cortical regulation, pointing toward a unique neurophysiological profile supporting the protection of vulnerable offspring.