Socio-economic dimensions of smallholder agroforestry: A bibliometric and theory-context-characteristics-methodology (TCCM) based systematic review

Agroforestry is increasingly understood as a multifunctional land-use system that has the capacity to improve the livelihoods of smallholders and solve the interconnected problems of climate change, food insecurity and ecosystem degradation. Although there is an increasing body of literature, there are still disparate gaps in the available evidence on the socio-economic aspects of smallholder agroforestry across various disciplines, contexts, and methodological backgrounds that hinder cumulative knowledge and policy implications. The present study is a mixed-method systematic review, which combines bibliometric science mapping with a Theory-Context-Characteristics-Methodology (TCCM) framework to synthesize and critically evaluate the literature. According to a strictly filtered database of peer-reviewed articles in Scopus and Web of Science, the bibliometric analysis identifies trends in publications, intellectual structures, the development of the themes, and geographical patterns, and the TCCM synthesis identifies prevailing theoretical perspectives, contextual and socio-economic factors, and methodologies. The findings indicate that publications have grown significantly since 2020, and it is predominantly on income effects, adoption behaviour, and livelihood outcomes, particularly in the Global South. The literature is, however, conceptually narrow, geographically and commodity-biased, and primarily based on cross-sectional quantitative designs. Significant gaps remain in theory-context integration, consideration of smallholder heterogeneity, and examination of long-term socio-economic dynamics. The identified prevalence of cross-sectional quantitative designs, the focus of the studies in certain areas of the Global South, and this review contribute to the necessity of longitudinal, multi-scalar, and theory-driven research designs. Addressing the limited attention to smallholder heterogeneity and institutional contexts can improve the design of agroforestry policies that are inclusive of socio-economic and long-term livelihood contexts. These findings provide future research directions, theoretical extensions, and conceptual advancements that are aimed at strengthening the socio-economic sustainability of smallholder agroforestry systems.