Phytosynthesis of Ag@AgCl nanoparticles using two types of bionanotechnological protocols exhibiting unique antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties

Introduction: via microwave extraction (ME) and heat extraction (HE) methods. Methods: The Ag-based nanoparticles (NPs) containing colloids and extracts were tested for antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. The successful bottom-up phytosynthesis of Ag@AgCl-NPs was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with chemical verification using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), crystallinity assessment using X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-VIS and Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and investigation of colloidal properties. Green synthesis approaches favored NP formation and colloidal stability. Antimicrobial activity was tested against Gram-positive (G+) and Gram-negative (G-) bacteria and fungi using the broth microdilution assay. Antioxidant activity was determined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method, while anti-inflammatory activity was examined using the bovine serum albumin (BSA) test. Results: . They also demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity compared to ME or HE extracts, which, surprisingly, showed greater antioxidant activity. Discussion: extracts yielded multifunctional hybrid products with potential utility in pharmacology, medicine, and toxicology.