Nanomaterial-modified concrete for sustainable infrastructure: Optimum dosage and durability trade-offs

This study reviews nanomaterial-modified concrete developed between 2004 and 2025, addressing key limitations of traditional concrete, including high permeability, weak interfacial transition zones, and durability constraints. It synthesizes experimental findings to establish clear structure-property relationships linking microstructural refinement with engineering-scale performance. The findings show that nano-silica is the most mature and effective material for strength and durability enhancement due to its strong pozzolanic reactivity and pore refinement capability. Carbon-based nanomaterials (graphene oxide and carbon nanotubes) provide superior crack-bridging ability, which enhances tensile and flexural properties. Metal oxides and nano-clays contribute mainly by densification and hydration acceleration mechanisms. Across all systems, performance is highly dosage-dependent, exhibiting a consistent “optimum-then-decline” behavior and a trade-off between strength gain and workability reduction. Quantitatively, nano-modification can enhance compressive strength by 10–80% and reduce permeability in the range of 20–60% quantitatively under optimal conditions. However, issues of dispersion, experimental conditions variation and non-standardization reduce the potential for field use to be conducted directly. This review provides a mechanistic and quantitative approach towards mix design and material selection, offering practical guidance for the development of high-performance and durable concrete in structural and pavement engineering applications.