Exploring the dairy milk matrix beyond isolated nutrients—a narrative review

The concept of the food matrix considers individual components along with how they are structured, interact, and are modified during processing. There is increasing interest around the health effects of individual nutrients versus whole foods, creating a need to better understand how the matrix may influence health outcomes. This narrative review explores the dairy milk matrix and compares health effects with those of isolated components, with additional comparisons to plant-based milk alternatives. Comparative evidence suggests that while calcium from food and supplements generally has similar effects (depending on the form of the supplemental calcium), consumption of food-based sources such as milk may have fewer adverse effects associated with high-dose supplemental intake. Fermented milk products appear to offer additional health benefits compared with unfermented milk, likely due to bioactive compounds produced during fermentation. Structural and functional manipulation of milk proteins, such as whey and lactoferrin, can also modify matrix functionality; for example, appropriate processing conditions can preserve lactoferrin's iron-binding capacity, supporting iron transport and bioavailability. Compared with plant-based milks, which often require fortification and extensive processing, the dairy milk matrix is particularly effective at promoting nutrient absorption. Our findings highlight the importance of adopting a whole food perspective when considering milk in dietary recommendations and research.