Global meta-analysis of plasma-activated water for improving crop establishment, productivity, and health

, and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), reflecting the stable presence of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS). This comprehensive meta-analysis indicates that PAW consistently improves plant growth, biochemical characteristics, yield, and disease resistance. The acidifying nature of PAW also influences soil microbial dynamics, potentially enhancing nutrient cycling and long-term soil fertility. Collectively, the findings support PAW application as a multifunctional strategy for advancing sustainable agriculture through improved plant performance. The integration of solar-powered irrigation systems with onsite PAW activation and water quality sensors demonstrates a scalable pathway for precise, resilient irrigation and nutrient delivery in agriculture.