Genetic innovations in forest tree breeding: combating nematode threats and enhancing climate resilience

Abstract In the context of accelerating climate change, this review comprehensively explores genetic innovations in forest tree breeding emphasizing their potential for forest restoration, nematode resistance and climate resilience. Rising global temperatures, extreme weather and pollution are degrading forest ecosystems, limiting biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and ecological stability. While traditional breeding has delivered a valuable genetic foundation but its long cycles and limited precision necessitate integration with advanced tools. Modern approaches such as CRISPR/Cas genome editing, genomic selection (GS), marker-assisted selection (MAS) and epigenetic breeding now enable targeted improvement of traits including drought tolerance, pest disease resistance, wood quality and climate adaptability. Recent advances highlight polygenic nematode resistance mechanisms, transcription factor–mediated defense regulation and secondary metabolite–based anti-pathogen strategies. Assisted Gene Flow (AGF) including pollen-based assisted migration, offers complementary pathways to enhance genetic diversity and adapt populations to future climates. Epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, small RNAs and epi-miRNAs are increasingly recognized for their role in stress memory, hybrid vigor and rapid heritable adaptation without altering DNA sequence. Integrating multi-omics platforms with these breeding strategies improves trait prediction, elucidates gene–environment interactions and accelerates genetic gain. The review also addresses key challenges such as high implementation costs, regeneration bottlenecks in woody species, ecological trade-offs, and the stability of induced modifications. A coordinated approach among scientists, policymakers and forest managers is essential to deploy these innovations, restore forest health, mitigate climate change and nematode threats, and safeguard ecosystem services for future generations.