Advancements in nanomaterial-based adjuvants for animal vaccines

Designing adjuvants with immunostimulatory effects is crucial for enhancing the efficacy of various vaccines, controlling the outbreak and prevalence of animal infectious diseases. The rapid advancement of nanomaterials in recent years has opened new avenues for developing veterinary vaccine adjuvants. Adjuvants prepared from nanomaterials offer multiple advantages difficult to achieve with traditional adjuvants. This review summarizes the immunological mechanisms of nanoadjuvants, focusing on recent advances in inorganic nanomaterials, organic and polymeric nanomaterials, as well as hybrid and composite nanomaterials as potential veterinary vaccine adjuvants. It categorizes various nanomaterial adjuvants based on target species, diseases, and administration routes, and provides design recommendations, where appropriate, for the selection of appropriate adjuvant platforms tailored to specific species, pathogens, vaccine types, and delivery methods.