Beyond quotas: Women’s substantive participation and democratic consolidation in Timor-Leste

Women’s participation in public policy-making is a cornerstone of democratic governance, especially in post-conflict contexts such as Timor-Leste. Despite achieving 38% parliamentary representation in 2023 through quota legislation, women’s substantive influence remains constrained by entrenched patriarchal norms, elite gatekeeping, institutional weaknesses, and persistent gender-based violence. This study addresses a critical gap in the literature by shifting the analytical focus from descriptive representation to substantive representation—examining how women shape policy agendas, exercise agency, and contribute to governance outcomes once inside institutions. Employing a systematic literature review (2015–2025) guided by PRISMA 2020, the research synthesises peer-reviewed studies, institutional reports, and policy documents. The analysis is framed through critical actor theory, feminist institutionalism, and intersectionality, highlighting how formal and informal dynamics intersect to shape women’s agency. Findings reveal three dimensions. First, women face structural, institutional, and cultural barriers that limit their influence on policy despite numerical gains. Second, strategies such as leadership training, coalition-building, gender-responsive budgeting, and protective measures against political violence are crucial for translating presence into power. Third, women’s substantive participation contributes directly to democratic consolidation by broadening representation, enhancing accountability, and fostering legitimacy in fragile contexts. Comparative insights from Rwanda and Nepal demonstrate both the promise and limitations of quota-driven reforms, underscoring that institutional design must be complemented by cultural transformation. The study contributes theoretically by integrating multi-layered frameworks into debates on gender and governance; empirically, by situating Timor-Leste within comparative post-conflict scholarship; and practically, by offering policy recommendations aligned with SDG 5 and SDG 16, as well as ASEAN gender frameworks. It concludes that sustainable democratic governance requires moving beyond quotas toward structural reforms and cultural change that secure women’s substantive empowerment.