Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae Venom Proteins Disrupt Developmental Physiology and Reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

venom protein-supplemented diet reaching adulthood compared to 92% in controls. Surviving adults lived 30% fewer days and laid over 90% fewer morphologically normal eggs. These physiological disruptions coincided with elevated oxidative stress and detoxification enzyme activity, suggesting the venom induces oxidative and detoxification responses, which may be associated with the observed phenotypic alterations. This study provides the first demonstration of the oral toxicity of entomopathogenic nematode venom proteins, positioning them as a promising resource for the discovery of novel insecticidal proteins for sustainable pest management.