Gut Microbiota Metabolic Reprogramming Drives Endocrine and Immune Resistance in Hormone-Dependent Cancers

The gut microbiota, acting as a critical extrinsic endocrine organ, is profoundly involved in the pathological evolution and therapeutic response of hormone-dependent malignancies. This review elucidates the core mechanisms governing the microbiota, endocrine, and immune triple-axis. Multi-omic and biochemical evidence demonstrates that microbial metabolic networks, comprising the estrobolome, androbolome, and progestobolome/corticobolome, rely on enzymatic systems such as β-glucuronidases (GUS) and steroid-17,20-desmolases to execute hormone deconjugation and structural modification, thereby modulating systemic steroid exposure. Concurrently, microbe-derived metabolites, such as secondary bile acids and purine derivatives, act as inter-kingdom messengers. These metabolites remodel the tumor immune microenvironment by antagonizing hormone receptors and activating specific signaling axes, such as the Inosine-A2AR pathway. By modulating localized immune cells like effector T cells and myeloid cells, they play a pivotal role in tumor immune evasion. Furthermore, pharmacomicrobiomics reveals a bidirectional regulation between anti-tumor agents and the gut microbiota, where endocrine and immunotherapeutic drugs can induce microbial dysbiosis, while specific gut taxa contribute to primary or acquired resistance by enzymatically inactivating drugs (e.g., reductive inactivation of Enzalutamide) or providing hormonal precursors through bypass pathways. Facing translational challenges, such as real-world microbiome complexity and the colonization resistance of indigenous flora, we propose treating the human body as a unified host-microbe holobiont system. Future research should leverage gnotobiotic models and genetic causal inference to establish functional causality. These efforts will facilitate the development of precision tools, including ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) modulators, microbial enzyme inhibitors, and engineered live biotherapeutics. Collectively, these systems biology strategies offer a robust framework for overcoming therapeutic resistance in hormone-dependent malignancies.