Enhancement of the Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Jeju Beetroot ( <i>Beta vulgaris</i> ) through Repeated Steaming Cycles

values of the 2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl radical scavenging assay and increased total phenolic content. In lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, steamed beetroot extracts substantially suppressed the production of nitric oxide and reduced the pro-inflammatory cytokine levels without inducing cytotoxicity. Furthermore, these anti-inflammatory effects were associated with the downregulation of inflammatory mediator-related signaling pathways. Overall, repeated steaming effectively enhanced the functional properties of beetroot, thereby supporting its potential use as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent.