EnergyCEA: A multi-zone dynamic simulation framework to quantify energy determinants and climate sensitivity in plant factories

High energy intensity remains a primary barrier for plant factories with artificial lighting, yet standard single-zone models fail to account for the thermodynamic heterogeneity inherent in large-scale production. To address this limitation, we developed EnergyCEA, a multi-zone simulation framework that couples a triple-zone physical environment model with a calibrated strawberry growth module to quantify the dynamic energy-yield nexus. Validated against operational data from a commercial facility, this study evaluates the non-linear energy penalties associated with vertical scaling and performs global psychrometric sensitivity analyses. Results show that strawberry cultivation exhibits a distinct energy structure. HVAC accounts for 65.3% of total consumption, driven by specific requirements for light-dark period temperature differentials and high transpiration rates. Furthermore, passive vertical expansion reaches a thermodynamic threshold where aerodynamic deficits eventually outweigh land-use benefits. The coupling of outdoor environment conditions and dynamic equipment Coefficient of Performance dictates seasonal energy variances, causing summer energy intensity to exceed winter baselines by 25%. Crucially, global psychrometric mapping indicates that ambient enthalpy governs theoretical limits. Cold climates leverage enthalpy-based free cooling to minimize specific energy consumption to 60.9 kWh/kg. In humid or hot regions, the thermodynamic penalties driven by extreme latent or sensible loads elevate energy intensity to a peak of about 70.0 kWh/kg. These findings underscore the need to shift from standardized facility designs to climate-adaptive control strategies for sustainable high-value crop production. • Constructed the EnergyCEA multi-zone framework for PFALs energy simulation. • Climate, equipment, and vertical scaling determine plant energy performance. • Latent and sensible loads are primary drivers of regional energy variations. • Ambient enthalpy governs energy limits, requiring climate-adaptive control.