L1 and L2 speakers’ competence in a minority language (Frisian) compared

This study examines differences in Frisian language use between L1 speakers, who acquired Frisian from birth, and L2 speakers, who learned Frisian later as a second language, with particular attention to variation across proficiency levels. The analysis draws on data from a large-scale sociolinguistic survey combining sociological and linguistic questionnaires. Focusing on speakers who actively use Frisian, the study investigates lexical and grammatical variation, especially Dutch influence through borrowings. The results show that L2 speakers use fewer Dutch lexical borrowings and display a stronger preference for Standard Frisian vocabulary than L1 speakers, likely reflecting formal learning and heightened language monitoring. In contrast, differences in grammatical borrowings are limited, with an L1 advantage emerging primarily in more complex structures. These findings indicate that both high-level L2 performance and domain-specific L1 advantages coexist, underscoring the importance of linguistic domain and proficiency in research on minority language competence and language contact.