Zinc- and fluoride-containing bioactive glass enhances angiogenesis-mediated bone regeneration via M2d macrophage activation

neovascularization, bone volume, and bone mineral density relative to BG45S5. ZFBG showed minimal direct effects on human umbilical vein endothelial cells, suggesting that its proangiogenic effects are primarily macrophage mediated. Collectively, these findings suggest that ZFBG is associated with enhanced angiogenesis-related bone regeneration, potentially through modulation of VEGF-producing macrophages, and highlight the promise of ion-releasing bioactive glasses for immune-mediated bone repair.