Chemical evaluation of groundwater controlling factors in parts of the Sutlej River basin of Eastern Punjab, Indo-Gangetic plain of India

This study evaluates the hydrogeochemical mechanisms of sixty groundwater samples in the Sutlej River basin of eastern Punjab, India. Spatial ionic distribution of major cations, anions and metals depicted overall consistency and local differences in their concentrations. The cation triangle in Triliear plot indicated the dominance of mixed type attributing 83% of the samples followed by alkalis (Na + and K + water) types, while in the anion triangle, weak acids (HCO 3 - ) have dominance (98%) over strong acids (SO 4 2- and Cl - ). The hydrochemical facies was characterized by HCO 3 - -Ca.Mg (88%), indicating recharge of freshwater, mixed (no dominant species) and SO 4 2- .Cl - -Na + types (12%) imply mineral dissolution and rock-water interaction along the flow path. The saturation indices of gypsum, halite, and anhydrite minerals were less than 0 (unsaturated state), indicating that these minerals were continuously dissolved in groundwater during the process of groundwater evolution. The saturation indices (SI) of calcite, dolomite, and aragonite minerals progressively changed from an unsaturated state to a saturated state (SI>0). This transition indicates that, during groundwater evolution, the leaching effects of calcite and dolomite gradually diminished as the system approached mineral saturation. The results of base‑exchange and meteoric genesis revealed that hydrochemical composition was derived from bicarbonate (95%; r 1 >1 ), signifying meteoric shallower water with an early stage of groundwater (95%; r 2 >1 ). The hydrochemical transition of groundwater flow did not follow the Chebotarev sequence along the groundwater flow as depicted in the Water Table-Stiff diagram owing to local anthropogenic influences, including industrialization and agricultural practices. This analysis will reinforce the scientific basis for assessing groundwater in terms of chemical composition, which will help in the sustainable utilization of water resources in the eastern Punjab.