Air pollutant mixtures associated with decomposing Sargassum in the Caribbean: Sources, exposure, and potential interactive health effects (Review)

), emitted mainly by road traffic and industrial activities, contribute to tropospheric ozone formation and may exacerbate pre-existing respiratory disorders through oxidative and inflammatory pathways. Despite the growing number of studies on individual pollutants, current knowledge remains fragmented across atmospheric science, toxicology, and environmental health disciplines. This review provides an integrated synthesis of the potential health impacts of these co-occurring pollutants within a multipollutant framework relevant to the Caribbean context, and highlights the need for integrated exposure assessment, multi-pollutant surveillance, and targeted experimental approaches, including advanced in vitro and complementary in vivo models.