Blue-green water footprint estimation of wheat-maize cropping pattern in the North-Western Upper Gangetic Plains, India

This study analyses crop water use and water footprints (WF) of the wheat–maize cropping system in the North-Western Plains of the Upper Gangetic Plains (UGP) agro-climatic zone using effective rainfall and crop evapotranspiration estimated through the CROPWAT model along with district-wise yield data. The Based on 22 years of spatial data (2000–2022), the findings reveal significant intra-regional disparities in water availability and dependency. Wheat is mainly dependent on blue water (81% of total WF), whereas maize relies more on green water (78% of total WF). This spatial mismatch highlights the limitations of uniform irrigation strategies and calls for a governance transition toward localized, adaptive water management. Policy incentives must shift away from supporting irrigation-intensive cropping system toward promoting more climate-resilient, water-efficient systems such as wheat-maize to minimize unsustainable groundwater extraction. Institutional coordination across water, agriculture, and climate sectors, along with the integration of water footprint assessments (WFA) into agricultural planning, will be essential to achieving long-term water security and resilient food systems.