Closed-Loop Recycling of End-of-Life Poly(Ether Sulfone) Membranes: Upcycling Waste into Bisphenol S via a Catalyst-Free Hydrolysis Process

/g PES, nearly complete degradation was achieved within 6 h, yielding BPS at 94.1%. Techno-economic analysis and life-cycle assessment demonstrated the economic viability and environmental benefits of this process. Overall, this study provides a practical, sustainable pathway for upcycling end-of-life PES membranes and supports the transition toward resource recovery and circular economy practices.