A comparative study of students’ adoption and usage of mobile learning in developing countries: Tunisia, Morocco, and Libya

Abstract The rapid adoption of educational technologies such as mobile learning (m-learning) has revolutionised the higher education sector. However, the effectiveness of m-learning in developing country contexts, particularly with a focus on cultural differences, has not been well explored. Therefore, this study employed the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to identify technological factors, and Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions theory to understand the cultural factors influencing the acceptance of m-learning among university students in Tunisia, Morocco, and Libya. Data were collected from 588 respondents via a questionnaire, and results revealed that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence are key drivers of m-learning adoption. In contrast, the impact of compatibility, defined as the extent to which m-learning aligns with users’ values and existing familiarity, varies significantly across geographic contexts and is influenced by factors such as cultural orientation, poor infrastructure, digital illiteracy, and economic difficulties. These results emphasise the need to tailor m-learning programmes following the particular cultural and economic realities of developing countries to better understand the acceptance of technology in such contexts.