Beyond production: a review of use-phase environmental impacts in apparel life cycle assessment (LCA)

Abstract Clothing involves a complex production process and long-term usage, during which garments undergo repeated maintenance. Consequently, the use-phase plays a critical role in assessing the overall environmental impacts of apparel. While life cycle assessment (LCA) is widely applied in the fashion and textile industry, many studies prioritize cradle-to-gate stages. This review highlights two key aspects. First, it establishes the importance of the use-phase within the entire life cycle. Second, it delves into a detailed analysis of the use-phase, examining major elements affecting environmental burdens, including garment lifespan, washing frequency, drying method, and regional differences. The use-phase often accounts for the second-highest environmental impact after production, and in certain cases, represents the most significant contributor. Extending garment lifespan is a highly effective strategy for mitigating overall impacts by avoiding the need for new production. Washing frequency and the choice between machine and air drying are also confirmed as important factors. Regional differences, which include consumer behavior and the carbon intensity of electricity grids, lead to substantial differences in use-phase impacts. In summary, this review highlights the central role of the use-phase in apparel LCA and emphasizes its key factors. While extensive LCA studies have focused on washing and drying processes, other common practices such as ironing and dry cleaning have received limited academic attention. This oversight constitutes a notable gap in the current literature, suggesting a need for further research to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the environmental impacts of apparel.