Double burden: microfilariae infection amplifies metabolic costs of moult in breeding male village weavers (Ploceus cucullatus)

) to investigate how microfilariae infection affects host biochemical energy status and overall condition. Using plasma glucose, triglycerides, β-hydroxybutyrate, and body mass adjusted for structural size as integrative markers, we examined how infection influences energy allocation and imposes physiological costs during this critical life-history stage. Specifically, we aimed to: (i) determine whether microfilariae infection and active moult influence short-term energy availability by examining plasma glucose concentrations, and whether absolute body mass modulates the effect of infection; and (ii) evaluate the combined and independent effects of infection and moult on lipid and ketone metabolism, while incorporating absolute body mass and size-corrected body condition index (BCI) to assess overall energetic reserves and physiological trade-offs. A total of 128 breeding males were trapped and screened for microfilariae and moult status. Our results indicate infected birds that are actively moulting experienced higher β-hydroxybutyrate, lower glucose and reduced BCI, when compared with the non-infected birds that were non-moulting. On the other hand, non-infected male birds that were also non-moulting maintained higher triglyceride levels. Our regression analyses indicate both infection and moult independently increased ketone concentrations and decreased triglycerides (P < 0.05), with no significant interaction for most markers. However, for β-hydroxybutyrate, the interaction may approach significance (P = 0.08), which suggest a marginal tendency toward non-additive effects. These results highlight a 'double burden,' where concurrent parasitism and moult constrain energy allocation, shifting metabolism from carbohydrates toward lipid catabolism. This study may provide mechanistic insight into how microfilariae infection amplifies energetic costs during high-demand life-history stages in breeding male village weavers.