Reply to Mazzaferro et al. and Niebaum: The limits of alignment: Grounding executive functions without assuming special contexts

We thank the commentary authors for pointing out how our original dichotomy—between “executive functions” as universal and culturally specific—can be overcome, albeit by qualitatively expanding the scope of “executive function” as it is traditionally defined (e.g., refs. 1 and 2). In fact, this universal-and-culturally specific notion (“inclusive EFs”) stands to integrate our data with the crucial work of commentary authors in studying local patterns of EF engagement (3–5) and supporting development in a diverse array of contexts (6, 7). Such an inclusive approach, however, depends upon moving beyond the notion that tasks must be “aligned” with populations.